Holodeck masquing: early modern genre meets Star trek.

Milton's masque popularly known as Comus, performed in 1634 and first published a few years later, is often said to be the culmination of the genre. As the most conspicuous example of conspicuous consumption during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the masque was outlawed with other dramatic forms during the Puritan Commonwealth, and revived only briefly during the reign of Charles II. The few attempts to produce masques in twentieth-century Britain have been on a small scale; for instance, the critic William Empson wrote one to welcome the queen to Sheffield and celebrate the production of steel, and Charles Williams wrote masques to entertain the staff of Oxford University Press (Howard 186). In the United States, Robert Frost wrote A Masque of Reason and A Masque of Mercy, which are generally considered "his most conspicuous failures," unplayable, and which bear little resemblance to the masques of the seventeenth century (Meyers 278-79).(FN1) But the past ten years have seen masques performed regularly, and for more general audiences, on episodes of the Star Trek spinoff series Next Generation, Deep Space 9, and Voyager. Characters on these shows enjoy access to a sophisticated form of interactive entertainment based on computer-generated holograms. Holodeck scenarios vary from training programs to mysteries to Shakespeare's Henry V. Episodes frequently hinge on the holodeck subplots; in some cases, the lines are blurred between holodeck fantasy and Star Trek "reality," foregrounding the subplot. In both performance and purpose, holodeck play closely resembles the masque genre.

Particularly as represented by the joint efforts of Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones, the early modern masque featured dancing aristocrats in expensive, elaborate costumes and sets, supported by professional actors and musicians. Many masques refer to the royalty anticipated as part of the audience; some included royalty in the cast, such as Charles I. Since a masque was typically commissioned by a member of the royal family, its content mirrored royal values. Stephen Orgel describes the masque as " t he theatre that was created by royal patronage" and so "uniquely responsive to the minds of its patrons" (270; cf. Dutton 66). The minimal plot of a masque presents mythological and pastoral characters in a simple allegory that tests and "proves" the virtue of the aristocratic and royal performers. The many virtues of the main characters displayed during the drama are attributed to the people behind the masks, since the audience always knows their true identities. Thus, in Milton's Maske at Ludlow Castle, the nameless Lady who bests Comus in argument is Lady Alice Egerton, daughter of the masque's patron, the Lord President of Wales. As Roy Flannagan comments in his recent edition of Milton, "Lady Alice Egerton was a lady, but to transform her into The Lady elevates her to something like allegorical status, representing in one person all female aristocrats, or all women who possess nobility of mind" (109). Three other representatives of the Lord President of Wales joined her in the performance: her two brothers (playing the Elder Brother and Second Brother of the masque), and their music tutor, Henry Lawes, who played a spirit sent by Jove in the guise of Thyrsis, shepherd to the Lady's father. Guided by the Spirit, the children overcome evil, in the form of the tempter Comus, son of Circe. Readers of the masque are also aware of the original cast; not only are these prominent players listed (with the omission of Comus, presumably played by a professional actor), but also the first publication is dedicated to the Elder Brother: "the Right Honourable, John Lord Vicount Bracly, Son and Heir to the Earl of Bridgewater" (Flannagan 120).

Other masques would offer flattery to a royal observer; for instance, referring to the Virgin Queen as Diana, the goddess of chastity. Any monarch could be figured as Neptune, ruler of the ocean and thus of its most important island, Britain, or as the sun, illuminating both the performance and the nation. In Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue (1618), Jonson pays tribute to James I: "See where he shines, Justice and Wisdom plac'd / About his throne" (178-79). As Caroline Bingham asserts, the masque was "an almost liturgical celebration of the cult of monarchy," with each performance "paying...ritual homage" to the ruler (104). Moreover, this adoration sets a goal for the audience: that of imitating the virtues portrayed in the masque (Cunningham 160). For instance, in Jonson's entertainment Prince Henry's Barriers (1610), Merlin advises Henry to imitate his father, "Royal and mighty James, whose name shall set / A goal for all posterity to sweat / In running at" (345-47). Similarly--and more elegantly--the audience of Oberon (1611) is admonished to tread, like the masquers, "In James's footsteps only" (295).

The main features of the masque--especially the audience's awareness of multiple identities--are all repeated in Star Trek holodeck performances. Holodecks use advanced, energy-intensive technology that is sometimes the envy of other species. As Ensign Harry Kim of Starship Voyager tells an alien captor who is demanding the expansion of the holodecks: "Look, holodecks require an enormous amount of energy." Their illusions require equipment that will create any object that might be touched; since these replicators can manufacture food and weapons, they are also quite desirable. Holodeck plots may sometimes be more complex than the traditional masque, trying the problem-solving skills of the participants, but most stories still concern good and evil. Instead of fallible Ben Jonson and Thomas Campion to write the masques, holodeck users have access to an even more responsive and powerful writer: the ship's computer. The professional actors and musicians are replaced by holograms, while the lead roles are played by Star Trek's technocracy: the captain and bridge officers. The audience is well aware of the dual and sometimes triple identities involved: Joe Piscopo plays a hologram comedian; James Darren, a hologram nightclub singer; and Stephen Hawking, a hologram of...Stephen Hawking. Captain Kathryn Janeway of Voyager plays a French resistance leader during the Nazi occupation; Captain Benjamin Sisko of Deep Space 9 plays a Philip Marlowe-inspired detective; and Captain Jean-Luc Picard of Starship Enterprise plays a role in Henry V, evoking his other alter ego as Shakespearean actor Patrick Stewart. As with the early modern masque, a medium ostensibly for entertainment serves to reinforce the hierarchy, as well as the values of the ruling class. The officers nearly always play the hero; the holograms assume the less-desirable roles: the gangsters, the Nazis. In resolving the conflict between good and evil, the stars show themselves more insightful, more compassionate, and better educated in virtue than their opponents. Like the earlier masques, holodeck masques are comedies: good always triumphs.

The original Star Trek series (1966-69) and the films are not without their Shakespearean and literary references, which perform masque-like functions. An episode from the original series, entitled "The Conscience of the King," uses the play-within-the-play strategy as mass murderer Kodos "the Executioner" conceals himself as actor Anton Karidian and plays another murderer: Macbeth. Kodos and Kirk refer to the "real" executions of twenty years prior as another play, and "Kodos" as another role. "The play's been over for twenty years," says Kirk, and not only is Karidian a ghost of his former self, Kodos, but he also plays the ghost of Hamlet's father, "doomed for a certain term to walk the night." Meanwhile, Karidian's beautiful but unstable and homicidal daughter Lenore plays Lady Macbeth and Ophelia. The second film, The Wrath of Khan (1982), builds on Paradise Lost and Moby-Dick, quoting liberally from both to make the deeper allusions more evident. In the sixth movie, the Klingons quote Shakespeare "in the original Klingon" at a diplomatic dinner. Peaceful Chancellor Gorkon toasts the future as "the undiscovered country."(FN2) Meanwhile, General Chang quotes Shakespeare liberally, to goad Kirk, whose literary knowledge has always been surprisingly extensive for a man who fights and sleeps his way through the galaxy. During the battle between Kirk and Chang, the latter reveals his martial spirit in numerous quotations, including: "Once more into the breach"; "Cry havoc, and let slip the dogs of war"; and as he sees his death, "To be or not to be."(FN3).

Two Klingon leaders might control Shakespeare on the old Enterprise, but it is Jean-Luc Picard who owns a Globe Illustrated Shakespeare. When the omnipotent being known only as "Q" quotes Hamlet at Picard, the captain boasts, "I know Hamlet." To counter Q's "all the galaxy's a stage," Picard responds with the "What a piece of work is man" passage, the Shakespearean corollary of Starfleet's goal: to explore the brave new world of the galaxy.

It is under Captain Picard in The Next Generation (1987-94) that the holodeck is invented, and then the masque reborn, in the first episode of the 1990 season: "The Defector." In an effort to learn more about human nature, the android Data plays the king as he speaks incognito with his soldiers in Henry V. Patrick Stewart plays two roles: a holodeck image of the soldier Michael Williams, and Captain Picard standing to one side coaching Data's performance.(FN4) Later, Picard consciously echoes Henry's concerns about leading men into battle, as war with Romulus becomes increasingly likely. In fact, he asks Data to be his eyes and ears among the crew, as the captain cannot walk in disguise on his own ship. Finally, when challenged by a hostile Romulan commander, Picard indicates that his crew and officers are not ready for surrender by quoting Henry's lines, "If the cause is just and honorable, they are prepared to give their lives." As in a traditional masque, the reenactment of Henry V reinforces the themes, and sustains or elevates the high moral tone, of The Next Generation. Unlike the Romulans, the humans and their allies carry great art into the far reaches of the galaxy, art that reflects and encourages the finer points of human nature.

In another episode, "Elementary, Dear Data," the android plays Holmes, but again Picard is drawn in to prove his true worth. The ship's chief engineer, Geordi LaForge, trying to play Data's Watson, challenges the computer to create "an opponent capable of defeating Data." With a sudden power surge, the computer grants consciousness to the holodeck Moriarty, who proceeds to kidnap the ship's medical officer and take control of the Enterprise. To rescue Dr. Pulaski, Picard joins Data on the holodeck, and hears Moriarty's demands: he wishes to continue to exist, since he is now aware of that existence. The primary sign of Moriarty's consciousness is that like the audience and the Starfleet officers, he sees past the masks: he knows that Data isn't "really" Holmes. Picard's proposed solution, to save the program and work to find a way of allowing Moriarty to exist off the holodeck, acknowledges the super-villain's transformation from fictional character to fellow actor.

In the "Ship in a Bottle" episode, Moriarty tires of waiting for Picard, and attempts once more to take control of the Enterprise and gain his freedom. He creates a simulated Enterprise on the holodeck, convincing Picard, Data, and engineer Barkley that they have exited the holodeck and returned to "reality," when they are really trapped on the holodeck. When they discover the trick, Picard and his officers use Moriarty's own techniques to persuade the Victorian villain that he has left the Enterprise, when he has been safely imprisoned in a small computer independent of the ship's main computer. Picard justifies this necessary betrayal by pointing out that his own "real" world is a fantasy, a stage: "All this might just be an elaborate simulation running inside a little device sitting on someone's table.".

On Deep Space 9 (1993-99) and Voyager (1995-2001), less use has been made of holodecks until recently. During the spring of 1998, a two-part Voyager episode entitled "The Killing Game" added a new twist: Starfleet officers unaware of their "true" identities as they performed on the holodeck for another civilization. The Hirogens are a race of hunters; having captured Voyager, they put its crew into simulated conflicts to learn more about this "prey." The Hirogen commandant plans to replace the real "hunt" with holodecks, since the species has hunted possible prey nearly to extinction. Although his subordinates do not share his vision, and eventually kill him, the episode ends with his replacement accepting from Voyager's Captain Janeway the "electronic data core" that will make holodeck technology possible for the Hirogens.

The crucial "killing game" is a World War II scenario, with Kathryn Janeway as Katrine, a nightclub owner and resistance leader in the Nazi-occupied town of St. Clair, France. Janeway's security officer Tuvok is cast in the role of Katrine's bartender, and the ex-Borg character known as Seven-of-Nine as the nightclub's singer and the resistance cell's munitions expert. In these roles they mirror their Voyager characters: Janeway displays her usual leadership, Tuvok his usual Vulcan logic, and as usual they both rely on Seven's technological expertise while suspecting her loyalty as a newcomer to their organization. Janeway's second-in-command Chakotay is Captain Miller, leader of the American forces: "They'll follow orders," he says of his holodeck troops. "I'm their commanding officer." Miller's lieutenant, Bobby, and Brigitte, Bobby's old girlfriend and the resistance radio specialist, are played by Voyager lovers Tom Paris and Be'Lanna Torres. Just like the half-Klingon Torres, Brigitte has "one hell of a temper." She has become the mistress of a Nazi officer, gaining information for the resistance; when Bobby reappears, Brigitte is visibly pregnant, as was Roxann Biggs-Dawson, the actor playing Torres playing Brigitte. When the Starfleet officers do a few things out of character--Seven singing, for instance, and the usually-timid Neelix in another simulation behaving like a Klingon hero--these slight dissimilarities suggest that the Voyager characters possess positive qualities unknown to themselves, but now revealed to the audience.

Just as the Starfleet officers are typecast as French resistance members and American GIs, the Hirogens playing Nazis interact well with the holodeck Nazis: both are nationalistic cultures emphasizing tradition, and violently prejudiced against others. Both are guilty of genocide, as the Hirogens have brutally destroyed entire civilizations in the name of "the hunt." When the Hirogen playing the commandant calls a ceasefire, his junior officer willingly listens to Brigitte's Nazi boyfriend talk about the need to continue the glorious fight on behalf of the superior race. The Hirogens are defeated by their rejection of the wisdom of the commandant, who foresees the extinction of the Hirogen way of life if these hunters refuse to adapt, and who wishes to study the humans and their technology rather than slaughtering everyone immediately. He warns the young Nazi officer never to underestimate the prey. The Hirogens do underestimate the prey, and are defeated by the ingenuity and technology of the despised Starfleet officers, who bring holodeck Klingons from another program to fight for the Allies. Obviously, the holodeck play is more than play in this episode: the holodeck battle determines the fate of the ship.

Holodeck play is carried out by aristocratic amateurs, the ranking officers of the Enterprise, but the play bears deeper significance. Twenty-fourth-century holodeck and replicator technology represents the wealth available to Star Trek crew members in their struggle to explore the galaxy, defend the innocent, and extend the Federation. Whether battling hostile aliens or Nazis, Starfleet proves itself courageous and clever, and its cause "just and honorable." Questioning the boundaries between fact and fiction, serious conflict and play, encourages viewers to apply the moral lessons of Star Trek to their daily lives, just as Star Trek characters use the holodeck in their "real" lives. To slightly modify the words of Oberon, true devotees of Star Trek will be willing to lay all their glories at the feet of Starfleet, and their honor and fame to the sole power and magic of the Prime Directive.

Added material.

Jean E. Graham is an associate professor of English at The College of New Jersey.

This paper was presented at the Twenty-third International Conference on Patristic, Mediaeval, and Renaissance Studies, Villanova University (Oct. 10, 1998). My thanks to the conference participants, particularly James Egan, and to Ronald Graham and Alan Hewston for pointing me to Star Trek resources.

FOOTNOTES

1 In the year of its publication, Frost said of A Masque of Reason: "All my poetry is a footnote to it" (Cramer 182). Neither of Frost's closet-masques features aristocratic or famous actors.

2 It is unclear whether either the Klingons or the Starfleet officers realize that for Hamlet "the undiscovered country" was death (3.1.79).

3 At one point, Dr. McCoy mutters, "I'd give real money if he'd shut up!".

4 According to Star Trek: The Next Generation Handbook, Stewart also suggested this subplot (Nemecek 110).

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